Работа с командной строкой windows python

sha1sum

sha1sum calculates SHA-1 hashes, and it’s often used to verify the integrity of files. For a given input, a hash function always returns the same value. Any minor changes in the input will result in a different hash value. Before you use the utility with concrete parameters, you may try to display the help:

$ sha1sum --help
Usage: sha1sum [OPTION]... [FILE]...
Print or check SHA1 (160-bit) checksums.

With no FILE, or when FILE is -, read standard input.

  -b, --binary         read in binary mode
  -c, --check          read SHA1 sums from the FILEs and check them
      --tag            create a BSD-style checksum
  -t, --text           read in text mode (default)
  -z, --zero           end each output line with NUL, not newline,
                       and disable file name escaping
[ ... complete help text not shown ... ]

Displaying the help of a command line program is a common feature exposed in the command-line interface.

To calculate the SHA-1 hash value of the content of a file, you proceed as follows:

$ sha1sum main.c
125a0f900ff6f164752600550879cbfabb098bc3  main.c

The result shows the SHA-1 hash value as the first field and the name of the file as the second field. The command can take more than one file as arguments:

$ sha1sum main.c main.py
125a0f900ff6f164752600550879cbfabb098bc3  main.c
d84372fc77a90336b6bb7c5e959bcb1b24c608b4  main.py

Thanks to the wildcards expansion feature of the Unix terminal, it’s also possible to provide Python command-line arguments with wildcard characters. One such a character is the asterisk or star (*):

$ sha1sum main.*
3f6d5274d6317d580e2ffc1bf52beee0d94bf078  main.c
f41259ea5835446536d2e71e566075c1c1bfc111  main.py

The shell converts main.* to main.c and main.py, which are the two files matching the pattern main.* in the current directory, and passes them to sha1sum. The program calculates the SHA1 hash of each of the files in the argument list. You’ll see that, on Windows, the behavior is different. Windows has no wildcard expansion, so the program may have to accommodate for that. Your implementation may need to expand wildcards internally.

Without any argument, sha1sum reads from the standard input. You can feed data to the program by typing characters on the keyboard. The input may incorporate any characters, including the carriage return Enter. To terminate the input, you must signal the end of file with Enter, followed by the sequence Ctrl+D:

 1$ sha1sum
 2Real
 3Python
 487263a73c98af453d68ee4aab61576b331f8d9d6  -

You first enter the name of the program, sha1sum, followed by Enter, and then Real and Python, each also followed by Enter. To close the input stream, you type Ctrl+D. The result is the value of the SHA1 hash generated for the text RealnPythonn. The name of the file is -. This is a convention to indicate the standard input. The hash value is the same when you execute the following commands:

$ python -c "print('RealnPythonn', end='')" | sha1sum
87263a73c98af453d68ee4aab61576b331f8d9d6  -
$ python -c "print('RealnPython')" | sha1sum
87263a73c98af453d68ee4aab61576b331f8d9d6  -
$ printf "RealnPythonn" | sha1sum
87263a73c98af453d68ee4aab61576b331f8d9d6  -

Up next, you’ll read a short description of seq.

seq

seq generates a sequence of numbers. In its most basic form, like generating the sequence from 1 to 5, you can execute the following:

To get an overview of the possibilities exposed by seq, you can display the help at the command line:

$ seq --help
Usage: seq [OPTION]... LAST
  or:  seq [OPTION]... FIRST LAST
  or:  seq [OPTION]... FIRST INCREMENT LAST
Print numbers from FIRST to LAST, in steps of INCREMENT.

Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options too.
  -f, --format=FORMAT      use printf style floating-point FORMAT
  -s, --separator=STRING   use STRING to separate numbers (default: n)
  -w, --equal-width        equalize width by padding with leading zeroes
      --help     display this help and exit
      --version  output version information and exit
[ ... complete help text not shown ... ]

For this tutorial, you’ll write a few simplified variants of sha1sum and seq. In each example, you’ll learn a different facet or combination of features about Python command-line arguments.

On Mac OS and Linux, sha1sum and seq should come pre-installed, though the features and the help information may sometimes differ slightly between systems or distributions. If you’re using Windows 10, then the most convenient method is to run sha1sum and seq in a Linux environment installed on the WSL. If you don’t have access to a terminal exposing the standard Unix utilities, then you may have access to online terminals:

• Create a free account on PythonAnywhere and start a Bash Console.
• Create a temporary Bash terminal on repl.it.

These are two examples, and you may find others.

Displaying Arguments

The sys module exposes an array named argv that includes the following:

1. argv[0] contains the name of the current Python program.
2. argv[1:], the rest of the list, contains any and all Python command-line arguments passed to the program.

The following example demonstrates the content of sys.argv:

 1# argv.py
 2import sys
 3
 4print(f"Name of the script      : {sys.argv[0]=}")
 5print(f"Arguments of the script : {sys.argv[1:]=}")

Here’s how this code works:

• Line 2 imports the internal Python module sys.
• Line 4 extracts the name of the program by accessing the first element of the list sys.argv.
• Line 5 displays the Python command-line arguments by fetching all the remaining elements of the list sys.argv.

Execute the script argv.py above with a list of arbitrary arguments as follows:

$ python argv.py un deux trois quatre
Name of the script      : sys.argv[0]='argv.py'
Arguments of the script : sys.argv[1:]=['un', 'deux', 'trois', 'quatre']

The output confirms that the content of sys.argv[0] is the Python script argv.py, and that the remaining elements of the sys.argv list contains the arguments of the script, ['un', 'deux', 'trois', 'quatre'].

To summarize, sys.argv contains all the argv.py Python command-line arguments. When the Python interpreter executes a Python program, it parses the command line and populates sys.argv with the arguments.

Reversing the First Argument

Now that you have enough background on sys.argv, you’re going to operate on arguments passed at the command line. The example reverse.py reverses the first argument passed at the command line:

 1# reverse.py
 2
 3import sys
 4
 5arg = sys.argv[1]
 6print(arg[::-1])

In reverse.py the process to reverse the first argument is performed with the following steps:

• Line 5 fetches the first argument of the program stored at index 1 of sys.argv. Remember that the program name is stored at index 0 of sys.argv.
• Line 6 prints the reversed string. args[::-1] is a Pythonic way to use a slice operation to reverse a list.

You execute the script as follows:

$ python reverse.py "Real Python"
nohtyP laeR

As expected, reverse.py operates on "Real Python" and reverses the only argument to output "nohtyP laeR". Note that surrounding the multi-word string "Real Python" with quotes ensures that the interpreter handles it as a unique argument, instead of two arguments. You’ll delve into argument separators in a later section.

Mutating sys.argv

sys.argv is globally available to your running Python program. All modules imported during the execution of the process have direct access to sys.argv. This global access might be convenient, but sys.argv isn’t immutable. You may want to implement a more reliable mechanism to expose program arguments to different modules in your Python program, especially in a complex program with multiple files.

Observe what happens if you tamper with sys.argv:

# argv_pop.py

import sys

print(sys.argv)
sys.argv.pop()
print(sys.argv)

You invoke .pop() to remove and return the last item in sys.argv.

Execute the script above:

$ python argv_pop.py un deux trois quatre
['argv_pop.py', 'un', 'deux', 'trois', 'quatre']
['argv_pop.py', 'un', 'deux', 'trois']

Notice that the fourth argument is no longer included in sys.argv.

In a short script, you can safely rely on the global access to sys.argv, but in a larger program, you may want to store arguments in a separate variable. The previous example could be modified as follows:

# argv_var_pop.py

import sys

print(sys.argv)
args = sys.argv[1:]
print(args)
sys.argv.pop()
print(sys.argv)
print(args)

This time, although sys.argv lost its last element, args has been safely preserved. args isn’t global, and you can pass it around to parse the arguments per the logic of your program. The Python package manager, pip, uses this approach. Here’s a short excerpt of the pip source code:

def main(args=None):
    if args is None:
        args = sys.argv[1:]

In this snippet of code taken from the pip source code, main() saves into args the slice of sys.argv that contains only the arguments and not the file name. sys.argv remains untouched, and args isn’t impacted by any inadvertent changes to sys.argv.

Escaping Whitespace Characters

In the reverse.py example you saw earlier, the first and only argument is "Real Python", and the result is "nohtyP laeR". The argument includes a whitespace separator between "Real" and "Python", and it needs to be escaped.

On Linux, whitespaces can be escaped by doing one of the following:

1. Surrounding the arguments with single quotes (')
2. Surrounding the arguments with double quotes (")
3. Prefixing each space with a backslash ()

Without one of the escape solutions, reverse.py stores two arguments, "Real" in sys.argv[1] and "Python" in sys.argv[2]:

$ python reverse.py Real Python
laeR

The output above shows that the script only reverses "Real" and that "Python" is ignored. To ensure both arguments are stored, you’d need to surround the overall string with double quotes (").

You can also use a backslash () to escape the whitespace:

$ python reverse.py Real Python
nohtyP laeR

With the backslash (), the command shell exposes a unique argument to Python, and then to reverse.py.

In Unix shells, the internal field separator (IFS) defines characters used as delimiters. The content of the shell variable, IFS, can be displayed by running the following command:

$ printf "%qn" "$IFS"
$' tn'

From the result above, ' tn', you identify three delimiters:

1. Space (' ')
2. Tab (t)
3. Newline (n)

Prefixing a space with a backslash () bypasses the default behavior of the space as a delimiter in the string "Real Python". This results in one block of text as intended, instead of two.

Note that, on Windows, the whitespace interpretation can be managed by using a combination of double quotes. It’s slightly counterintuitive because, in the Windows terminal, a double quote (") is interpreted as a switch to disable and subsequently to enable special characters like space, tab, or pipe (|).

As a result, when you surround more than one string with double quotes, the Windows terminal interprets the first double quote as a command to ignore special characters and the second double quote as one to interpret special characters.

With this information in mind, it’s safe to assume that surrounding more than one string with double quotes will give you the expected behavior, which is to expose the group of strings as a single argument. To confirm this peculiar effect of the double quote on the Windows command line, observe the following two examples:

C:/>python reverse.py "Real Python"
nohtyP laeR

In the example above, you can intuitively deduce that "Real Python" is interpreted as a single argument. However, realize what occurs when you use a single double quote:

C:/>python reverse.py "Real Python
nohtyP laeR

The command prompt passes the whole string "Real Python" as a single argument, in the same manner as if the argument was "Real Python". In reality, the Windows command prompt sees the unique double quote as a switch to disable the behavior of the whitespaces as separators and passes anything following the double quote as a unique argument.

For more information on the effects of double quotes in the Windows terminal, check out A Better Way To Understand Quoting and Escaping of Windows Command Line Arguments.

Handling Errors

Python command-line arguments are loose strings. Many things can go wrong, so it’s a good idea to provide the users of your program with some guidance in the event they pass incorrect arguments at the command line. For example, reverse.py expects one argument, and if you omit it, then you get an error:

 1$ python reverse.py
 2Traceback (most recent call last):
 3  File "reverse.py", line 5, in <module>
 4    arg = sys.argv[1]
 5IndexError: list index out of range

The Python exception IndexError is raised, and the corresponding traceback shows that the error is caused by the expression arg = sys.argv[1]. The message of the exception is list index out of range. You didn’t pass an argument at the command line, so there’s nothing in the list sys.argv at index 1.

This is a common pattern that can be addressed in a few different ways. For this initial example, you’ll keep it brief by including the expression arg = sys.argv[1] in a try block. Modify the code as follows:

 1# reverse_exc.py
 2
 3import sys
 4
 5try:
 6    arg = sys.argv[1]
 7except IndexError:
 8    raise SystemExit(f"Usage: {sys.argv[0]} <string_to_reverse>")
 9print(arg[::-1])

The expression on line 4 is included in a try block. Line 8 raises the built-in exception SystemExit. If no argument is passed to reverse_exc.py, then the process exits with a status code of 1 after printing the usage. Note the integration of sys.argv[0] in the error message. It exposes the name of the program in the usage message. Now, when you execute the same program without any Python command-line arguments, you can see the following output:

$ python reverse.py
Usage: reverse.py <string_to_reverse>

$ echo $?
1

reverse.py didn’t have an argument passed at the command line. As a result, the program raises SystemExit with an error message. This causes the program to exit with a status of 1, which displays when you print the special variable $? with echo.

Calculating the sha1sum

You’ll write another script to demonstrate that, on Unix-like systems, Python command-line arguments are passed by bytes from the OS. This script takes a string as an argument and outputs the hexadecimal SHA-1 hash of the argument:

 1# sha1sum.py
 2
 3import sys
 4import hashlib
 5
 6data = sys.argv[1]
 7m = hashlib.sha1()
 8m.update(bytes(data, 'utf-8'))
 9print(m.hexdigest())

This is loosely inspired by sha1sum, but it intentionally processes a string instead of the contents of a file. In sha1sum.py, the steps to ingest the Python command-line arguments and to output the result are the following:

• Line 6 stores the content of the first argument in data.
• Line 7 instantiates a SHA1 algorithm.
• Line 8 updates the SHA1 hash object with the content of the first program argument. Note that hash.update takes a byte array as an argument, so it’s necessary to convert data from a string to a bytes array.
• Line 9 prints a hexadecimal representation of the SHA1 hash computed on line 8.

When you run the script with an argument, you get this:

$ python sha1sum.py "Real Python"
0554943d034f044c5998f55dac8ee2c03e387565

For the sake of keeping the example short, the script sha1sum.py doesn’t handle missing Python command-line arguments. Error handling could be addressed in this script the same way you did it in reverse_exc.py.

From the sys.argv documentation, you learn that in order to get the original bytes of the Python command-line arguments, you can use os.fsencode(). By directly obtaining the bytes from sys.argv[1], you don’t need to perform the string-to-bytes conversion of data:

 1# sha1sum_bytes.py
 2
 3import os
 4import sys
 5import hashlib
 6
 7data = os.fsencode(sys.argv[1])
 8m = hashlib.sha1()
 9m.update(data)
10print(m.hexdigest())

The main difference between sha1sum.py and sha1sum_bytes.py are highlighted in the following lines:

• Line 7 populates data with the original bytes passed to the Python command-line arguments.
• Line 9 passes data as an argument to m.update(), which receives a bytes-like object.

Execute sha1sum_bytes.py to compare the output:

$ python sha1sum_bytes.py "Real Python"
0554943d034f044c5998f55dac8ee2c03e387565

The hexadecimal value of the SHA1 hash is the same as in the previous sha1sum.py example.

Standards

A few available standards provide some definitions and guidelines to promote consistency for implementing commands and their arguments. These are the main UNIX standards and references:

• POSIX Utility Conventions
• GNU Standards for Command Line Interfaces
• docopt

The standards above define guidelines and nomenclatures for anything related to programs and Python command-line arguments. The following points are examples taken from those references:

• POSIX:
  • A program or utility is followed by options, option-arguments, and operands.
  • All options should be preceded with a hyphen or minus (-) delimiter character.
  • Option-arguments should not be optional.
• GNU:
  • All programs should support two standard options, which are --version and --help.
  • Long-named options are equivalent to the single-letter Unix-style options. An example is --debug and -d.
• docopt:
  • Short options can be stacked, meaning that -abc is equivalent to -a -b -c.
  • Long options can have arguments specified after a space or the equals sign (=). The long option --input=ARG is equivalent to --input ARG.

These standards define notations that are helpful when you describe a command. A similar notation can be used to display the usage of a particular command when you invoke it with the option -h or --help.

The GNU standards are very similar to the POSIX standards but provide some modifications and extensions. Notably, they add the long option that’s a fully named option prefixed with two hyphens (--). For example, to display the help, the regular option is -h and the long option is --help.

In the following sections, you’ll learn more about each of the command line components, options, arguments, and sub-commands.

Options

An option, sometimes called a flag or a switch, is intended to modify the behavior of the program. For example, the command ls on Linux lists the content of a given directory. Without any arguments, it lists the files and directories in the current directory:

$ cd /dev
$ ls
autofs
block
bsg
btrfs-control
bus
char
console

Let’s add a few options. You can combine -l and -s into -ls, which changes the information displayed in the terminal:

$ cd /dev
$ ls -ls
total 0
0 crw-r--r--  1 root root       10,   235 Jul 14 08:10 autofs
0 drwxr-xr-x  2 root root             260 Jul 14 08:10 block
0 drwxr-xr-x  2 root root              60 Jul 14 08:10 bsg
0 crw-------  1 root root       10,   234 Jul 14 08:10 btrfs-control
0 drwxr-xr-x  3 root root              60 Jul 14 08:10 bus
0 drwxr-xr-x  2 root root            4380 Jul 14 15:08 char
0 crw-------  1 root root        5,     1 Jul 14 08:10 console

An option can take an argument, which is called an option-argument. See an example in action with od below:

$ od -t x1z -N 16 main
0000000 7f 45 4c 46 02 01 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00  >.ELF............<
0000020

od stands for octal dump. This utility displays data in different printable representations, like octal (which is the default), hexadecimal, decimal, and ASCII. In the example above, it takes the binary file main and displays the first 16 bytes of the file in hexadecimal format. The option -t expects a type as an option-argument, and -N expects the number of input bytes.

In the example above, -t is given type x1, which stands for hexadecimal and one byte per integer. This is followed by z to display the printable characters at the end of the input line. -N takes 16 as an option-argument for limiting the number of input bytes to 16.

Arguments

The arguments are also called operands or parameters in the POSIX standards. The arguments represent the source or the destination of the data that the command acts on. For example, the command cp, which is used to copy one or more files to a file or a directory, takes at least one source and one target:

 1$ ls main
 2main
 3
 4$ cp main main2
 5
 6$ ls -lt
 7main
 8main2
 9...

In line 4, cp takes two arguments:

1. main: the source file
2. main2: the target file

It then copies the content of main to a new file named main2. Both main and main2 are arguments, or operands, of the program cp.

Subcommands

The concept of subcommands isn’t documented in the POSIX or GNU standards, but it does appear in docopt. The standard Unix utilities are small tools adhering to the Unix philosophy. Unix programs are intended to be programs that do one thing and do it well. This means no subcommands are necessary.

By contrast, a new generation of programs, including git, go, docker, and gcloud, come with a slightly different paradigm that embraces subcommands. They’re not necessarily part of the Unix landscape as they span several operating systems, and they’re deployed with a full ecosystem that requires several commands.

Take git as an example. It handles several commands, each possibly with their own set of options, option-arguments, and arguments. The following examples apply to the git subcommand branch:

• git branch displays the branches of the local git repository.
• git branch custom_python creates a local branch custom_python in a local repository.
• git branch -d custom_python deletes the local branch custom_python.
• git branch --help displays the help for the git branch subcommand.

In the Python ecosystem, pip has the concept of subcommands, too. Some pip subcommands include list, install, freeze, or uninstall.

Windows

On Windows, the conventions regarding Python command-line arguments are slightly different, in particular, those regarding command line options. To validate this difference, take tasklist, which is a native Windows executable that displays a list of the currently running processes. It’s similar to ps on Linux or macOS systems. Below is an example of how to execute tasklist in a command prompt on Windows:

C:/>tasklist /FI "IMAGENAME eq notepad.exe"

Image Name                     PID Session Name        Session#    Mem Usage
========================= ======== ================ =========== ============
notepad.exe                  13104 Console                    6     13,548 K
notepad.exe                   6584 Console                    6     13,696 K

Note that the separator for an option is a forward slash (/) instead of a hyphen (-) like the conventions for Unix systems. For readability, there’s a space between the program name, taskslist, and the option /FI, but it’s just as correct to type taskslist/FI.

The particular example above executes tasklist with a filter to only show the Notepad processes currently running. You can see that the system has two running instances of the Notepad process. Although it’s not equivalent, this is similar to executing the following command in a terminal on a Unix-like system:

$ ps -ef | grep vi | grep -v grep
andre     2117     4  0 13:33 tty1     00:00:00 vi .gitignore
andre     2163  2134  0 13:34 tty3     00:00:00 vi main.c

The ps command above shows all the current running vi processes. The behavior is consistent with the Unix Philosophy, as the output of ps is transformed by two grep filters. The first grep command selects all the occurrences of vi, and the second grep filters out the occurrence of grep itself.

With the spread of Unix tools making their appearance in the Windows ecosystem, non-Windows-specific conventions are also accepted on Windows.

Visuals

At the start of a Python process, Python command-line arguments are split into two categories:

1. Python options: These influence the execution of the Python interpreter. For example, adding option -O is a means to optimize the execution of a Python program by removing assert and __debug__ statements. There are other Python options available at the command line.

2. Python program and its arguments: Following the Python options (if there are any), you’ll find the Python program, which is a file name that usually has the extension .py, and its arguments. By convention, those can also be composed of options and arguments.

Take the following command that’s intended to execute the program main.py, which takes options and arguments. Note that, in this example, the Python interpreter also takes some options, which are -B and -v.

$ python -B -v main.py --verbose --debug un deux

In the command line above, the options are Python command-line arguments and are organized as follows:

• The option -B tells Python not to write .pyc files on the import of source modules. For more details about .pyc files, check out the section What Does a Compiler Do? in Your Guide to the CPython Source Code.
• The option -v stands for verbose and tells Python to trace all import statements.
• The arguments passed to main.py are fictitious and represent two long options (--verbose and --debug) and two arguments (un and deux).

This example of Python command-line arguments can be illustrated graphically as follows:

Within the Python program main.py, you only have access to the Python command-line arguments inserted by Python in sys.argv. The Python options may influence the behavior of the program but are not accessible in main.py.

Regular Expressions

You can use a regular expression to enforce a certain order, specific options and option-arguments, or even the type of arguments. To illustrate the usage of a regular expression to parse Python command-line arguments, you’ll implement a Python version of seq, which is a program that prints a sequence of numbers. Following the docopt conventions, a specification for seq.py could be this:

Print integers from <first> to <last>, in steps of <increment>.

Usage:
  python seq.py --help
  python seq.py [-s SEPARATOR] <last>
  python seq.py [-s SEPARATOR] <first> <last>
  python seq.py [-s SEPARATOR] <first> <increment> <last>

Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options too.
  -s, --separator=STRING use STRING to separate numbers (default: n)
      --help             display this help and exit

If <first> or <increment> are omitted, they default to 1. When <first> is
larger than <last>, <increment>, if not set, defaults to -1.
The sequence of numbers ends when the sum of the current number and
<increment> reaches the limit imposed by <last>.

First, look at a regular expression that’s intended to capture the requirements above:

 1args_pattern = re.compile(
 2    r"""
 3    ^
 4    (
 5        (--(?P<HELP>help).*)|
 6        ((?:-s|--separator)s(?P<SEP>.*?)s)?
 7        ((?P<OP1>-?d+))(s(?P<OP2>-?d+))?(s(?P<OP3>-?d+))?
 8    )
 9    $
10""",
11    re.VERBOSE,
12)

To experiment with the regular expression above, you may use the snippet recorded on Regular Expression 101. The regular expression captures and enforces a few aspects of the requirements given for seq. In particular, the command may take:

1. A help option, in short (-h) or long format (--help), captured as a named group called HELP
2. A separator option, -s or --separator, taking an optional argument, and captured as named group called SEP
3. Up to three integer operands, respectively captured as OP1, OP2, and OP3

For clarity, the pattern args_pattern above uses the flag re.VERBOSE on line 11. This allows you to spread the regular expression over a few lines to enhance readability. The pattern validates the following:

• Argument order: Options and arguments are expected to be laid out in a given order. For example, options are expected before the arguments.
• Option values**: Only --help, -s, or --separator are expected as options.
• Argument mutual exclusivity: The option --help isn’t compatible with other options or arguments.
• Argument type: Operands are expected to be positive or negative integers.

For the regular expression to be able to handle these things, it needs to see all Python command-line arguments in one string. You can collect them using str.join():

arg_line = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

This makes arg_line a string that includes all arguments, except the program name, separated by a space.

Given the pattern args_pattern above, you can extract the Python command-line arguments with the following function:

def parse(arg_line: str) -> Dict[str, str]:
    args: Dict[str, str] = {}
    if match_object := args_pattern.match(arg_line):
        args = {k: v for k, v in match_object.groupdict().items()
                if v is not None}
    return args

The pattern is already handling the order of the arguments, mutual exclusivity between options and arguments, and the type of the arguments. parse() is applying re.match() to the argument line to extract the proper values and store the data in a dictionary.

The dictionary includes the names of each group as keys and their respective values. For example, if the arg_line value is --help, then the dictionary is {'HELP': 'help'}. If arg_line is -s T 10, then the dictionary becomes {'SEP': 'T', 'OP1': '10'}. You can expand the code block below to see an implementation of seq with regular expressions.

# seq_regex.py

from typing import List, Dict
import re
import sys

USAGE = (
    f"Usage: {sys.argv[0]} [-s <separator>] [first [increment]] last"
)

args_pattern = re.compile(
    r"""
    ^
    (
        (--(?P<HELP>help).*)|
        ((?:-s|--separator)s(?P<SEP>.*?)s)?
        ((?P<OP1>-?d+))(s(?P<OP2>-?d+))?(s(?P<OP3>-?d+))?
    )
    $
""",
    re.VERBOSE,
)

def parse(arg_line: str) -> Dict[str, str]:
    args: Dict[str, str] = {}
    if match_object := args_pattern.match(arg_line):
        args = {k: v for k, v in match_object.groupdict().items()
                if v is not None}
    return args

def seq(operands: List[int], sep: str = "n") -> str:
    first, increment, last = 1, 1, 1
    if len(operands) == 1:
        last = operands[0]
    if len(operands) == 2:
        first, last = operands
        if first > last:
            increment = -1
    if len(operands) == 3:
        first, increment, last = operands
    last = last + 1 if increment > 0 else last - 1
    return sep.join(str(i) for i in range(first, last, increment))

def main() -> None:
    args = parse(" ".join(sys.argv[1:]))
    if not args:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    if args.get("HELP"):
        print(USAGE)
        return
    operands = [int(v) for k, v in args.items() if k.startswith("OP")]
    sep = args.get("SEP", "n")
    print(seq(operands, sep))

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

At this point, you know a few ways to extract options and arguments from the command line. So far, the Python command-line arguments were only strings or integers. Next, you’ll learn how to handle files passed as arguments.

File Handling

It’s time now to experiment with Python command-line arguments that are expected to be file names. Modify sha1sum.py to handle one or more files as arguments. You’ll end up with a downgraded version of the original sha1sum utility, which takes one or more files as arguments and displays the hexadecimal SHA1 hash for each file, followed by the name of the file:

# sha1sum_file.py

import hashlib
import sys

def sha1sum(filename: str) -> str:
    hash = hashlib.sha1()
    with open(filename, mode="rb") as f:
        hash.update(f.read())
    return hash.hexdigest()

for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
    print(f"{sha1sum(arg)}  {arg}")

sha1sum() is applied to the data read from each file that you passed at the command line, rather than the string itself. Take note that m.update() takes a bytes-like object as an argument and that the result of invoking read() after opening a file with the mode rb will return a bytes object. For more information about handling file content, check out Reading and Writing Files in Python, and in particular, the section Working With Bytes.

The evolution of sha1sum_file.py from handling strings at the command line to manipulating the content of files is getting you closer to the original implementation of sha1sum:

$ sha1sum main main.c
9a6f82c245f5980082dbf6faac47e5085083c07d  main
125a0f900ff6f164752600550879cbfabb098bc3  main.c

The execution of the Python program with the same Python command-line arguments gives this:

$ python sha1sum_file.py main main.c
9a6f82c245f5980082dbf6faac47e5085083c07d  main
125a0f900ff6f164752600550879cbfabb098bc3  main.c

Because you interact with the shell interpreter or the Windows command prompt, you also get the benefit of the wildcard expansion provided by the shell. To prove this, you can reuse main.py, which displays each argument with the argument number and its value:

$ python main.py main.*
Arguments count: 5
Argument      0: main.py
Argument      1: main.c
Argument      2: main.exe
Argument      3: main.obj
Argument      4: main.py

You can see that the shell automatically performs wildcard expansion so that any file with a base name matching main, regardless of the extension, is part of sys.argv.

The wildcard expansion isn’t available on Windows. To obtain the same behavior, you need to implement it in your code. To refactor main.py to work with wildcard expansion, you can use glob. The following example works on Windows and, though it isn’t as concise as the original main.py, the same code behaves similarly across platforms:

 1# main_win.py
 2
 3import sys
 4import glob
 5import itertools
 6from typing import List
 7
 8def expand_args(args: List[str]) -> List[str]:
 9    arguments = args[:1]
10    glob_args = [glob.glob(arg) for arg in args[1:]]
11    arguments += itertools.chain.from_iterable(glob_args)
12    return arguments
13
14if __name__ == "__main__":
15    args = expand_args(sys.argv)
16    print(f"Arguments count: {len(args)}")
17    for i, arg in enumerate(args):
18        print(f"Argument {i:>6}: {arg}")

In main_win.py, expand_args relies on glob.glob() to process the shell-style wildcards. You can verify the result on Windows and any other operating system:

C:/>python main_win.py main.*
Arguments count: 5
Argument      0: main_win.py
Argument      1: main.c
Argument      2: main.exe
Argument      3: main.obj
Argument      4: main.py

This addresses the problem of handling files using wildcards like the asterisk (*) or question mark (?), but how about stdin?

If you don’t pass any parameter to the original sha1sum utility, then it expects to read data from the standard input. This is the text you enter at the terminal that ends when you type Ctrl+D on Unix-like systems or Ctrl+Z on Windows. These control sequences send an end of file (EOF) to the terminal, which stops reading from stdin and returns the data that was entered.

In the next section, you’ll add to your code the ability to read from the standard input stream.

Standard Input

When you modify the previous Python implementation of sha1sum to handle the standard input using sys.stdin, you’ll get closer to the original sha1sum:

# sha1sum_stdin.py

from typing import List
import hashlib
import pathlib
import sys

def process_file(filename: str) -> bytes:
    return pathlib.Path(filename).read_bytes()

def process_stdin() -> bytes:
    return bytes("".join(sys.stdin), "utf-8")

def sha1sum(data: bytes) -> str:
    sha1_hash = hashlib.sha1()
    sha1_hash.update(data)
    return sha1_hash.hexdigest()

def output_sha1sum(data: bytes, filename: str = "-") -> None:
    print(f"{sha1sum(data)}  {filename}")

def main(args: List[str]) -> None:
    if not args:
        args = ["-"]
    for arg in args:
        if arg == "-":
            output_sha1sum(process_stdin(), "-")
        else:
            output_sha1sum(process_file(arg), arg)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main(sys.argv[1:])

Two conventions are applied to this new sha1sum version:

1. Without any arguments, the program expects the data to be provided in the standard input, sys.stdin, which is a readable file object.
2. When a hyphen (-) is provided as a file argument at the command line, the program interprets it as reading the file from the standard input.

Try this new script without any arguments. Enter the first aphorism of The Zen of Python, then complete the entry with the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+D on Unix-like systems or Ctrl+Z on Windows:

$ python sha1sum_stdin.py
Beautiful is better than ugly.
ae5705a3efd4488dfc2b4b80df85f60c67d998c4  -

You can also include one of the arguments as stdin mixed with the other file arguments like so:

$ python sha1sum_stdin.py main.py - main.c
d84372fc77a90336b6bb7c5e959bcb1b24c608b4  main.py
Beautiful is better than ugly.
ae5705a3efd4488dfc2b4b80df85f60c67d998c4  -
125a0f900ff6f164752600550879cbfabb098bc3  main.c

Another approach on Unix-like systems is to provide /dev/stdin instead of - to handle the standard input:

$ python sha1sum_stdin.py main.py /dev/stdin main.c
d84372fc77a90336b6bb7c5e959bcb1b24c608b4  main.py
Beautiful is better than ugly.
ae5705a3efd4488dfc2b4b80df85f60c67d998c4  /dev/stdin
125a0f900ff6f164752600550879cbfabb098bc3  main.c

On Windows there’s no equivalent to /dev/stdin, so using - as a file argument works as expected.

The script sha1sum_stdin.py isn’t covering all necessary error handling, but you’ll cover some of the missing features later in this tutorial.

Standard Output and Standard Error

Command line processing may have a direct relationship with stdin to respect the conventions detailed in the previous section. The standard output, although not immediately relevant, is still a concern if you want to adhere to the Unix Philosophy. To allow small programs to be combined, you may have to take into account the three standard streams:

1. stdin
2. stdout
3. stderr

The output of a program becomes the input of another one, allowing you to chain small utilities. For example, if you wanted to sort the aphorisms of the Zen of Python, then you could execute the following:

$ python -c "import this" | sort
Although never is often better than *right* now.
Although practicality beats purity.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
...

The output above is truncated for better readability. Now imagine that you have a program that outputs the same data but also prints some debugging information:

# zen_sort_debug.py

print("DEBUG >>> About to print the Zen of Python")
import this
print("DEBUG >>> Done printing the Zen of Python")

Executing the Python script above gives:

$ python zen_sort_debug.py
DEBUG >>> About to print the Zen of Python
The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
Simple is better than complex.
Complex is better than complicated.
...
DEBUG >>> Done printing the Zen of Python

The ellipsis (...) indicates that the output was truncated to improve readability.

Now, if you want to sort the list of aphorisms, then execute the command as follows:

$ python zen_sort_debug.py | sort

Although never is often better than *right* now.
Although practicality beats purity.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
Beautiful is better than ugly.
Complex is better than complicated.
DEBUG >>> About to print the Zen of Python
DEBUG >>> Done printing the Zen of Python
Errors should never pass silently.
...

You may realize that you didn’t intend to have the debug output as the input of the sort command. To address this issue, you want to send traces to the standard errors stream, stderr, instead:

# zen_sort_stderr.py
import sys

print("DEBUG >>> About to print the Zen of Python", file=sys.stderr)
import this
print("DEBUG >>> Done printing the Zen of Python", file=sys.stderr)

Execute zen_sort_stderr.py to observe the following:

$ python zen_sort_stderr.py | sort
DEBUG >>> About to print the Zen of Python
DEBUG >>> Done printing the Zen of Python

Although never is often better than *right* now.
Although practicality beats purity.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch
....

Now, the traces are displayed to the terminal, but they aren’t used as input for the sort command.

Custom Parsers

You can implement seq by relying on a regular expression if the arguments aren’t too complex. Nevertheless, the regex pattern may quickly render the maintenance of the script difficult. Before you try getting help from specific libraries, another approach is to create a custom parser. The parser is a loop that fetches each argument one after another and applies a custom logic based on the semantics of your program.

A possible implementation for processing the arguments of seq_parse.py could be as follows:

 1def parse(args: List[str]) -> Tuple[str, List[int]]:
 2    arguments = collections.deque(args)
 3    separator = "n"
 4    operands: List[int] = []
 5    while arguments:
 6        arg = arguments.popleft()
 7        if not operands:
 8            if arg == "--help":
 9                print(USAGE)
10                sys.exit(0)
11            if arg in ("-s", "--separator"):
12                separator = arguments.popleft()
13                continue
14        try:
15            operands.append(int(arg))
16        except ValueError:
17            raise SystemExit(USAGE)
18        if len(operands) > 3:
19            raise SystemExit(USAGE)
20
21    return separator, operands

parse() is given the list of arguments without the Python file name and uses collections.deque() to get the benefit of .popleft(), which removes the elements from the left of the collection. As the items of the arguments list unfold, you apply the logic that’s expected for your program. In parse() you can observe the following:

• The while loop is at the core of the function, and terminates when there are no more arguments to parse, when the help is invoked, or when an error occurs.
• If the separator option is detected, then the next argument is expected to be the separator.
• operands stores the integers that are used to calculate the sequence. There should be at least one operand and at most three.

A full version of the code for parse() is available below:

# seq_parse.py

from typing import Dict, List, Tuple
import collections
import re
import sys

USAGE = (f"Usage: {sys.argv[0]} "
         "[--help] | [-s <sep>] [first [incr]] last")

def seq(operands: List[int], sep: str = "n") -> str:
    first, increment, last = 1, 1, 1
    if len(operands) == 1:
        last = operands[0]
    if len(operands) == 2:
        first, last = operands
        if first > last:
            increment = -1
    if len(operands) == 3:
        first, increment, last = operands
    last = last + 1 if increment > 0 else last - 1
    return sep.join(str(i) for i in range(first, last, increment))

def parse(args: List[str]) -> Tuple[str, List[int]]:
    arguments = collections.deque(args)
    separator = "n"
    operands: List[int] = []
    while arguments:
        arg = arguments.popleft()
        if not len(operands):
            if arg == "--help":
                print(USAGE)
                sys.exit(0)
            if arg in ("-s", "--separator"):
                separator = arguments.popleft() if arguments else None
                continue
        try:
            operands.append(int(arg))
        except ValueError:
            raise SystemExit(USAGE)
        if len(operands) > 3:
            raise SystemExit(USAGE)

    return separator, operands

def main() -> None:
    sep, operands = parse(sys.argv[1:])
    if not operands:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    print(seq(operands, sep))

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

This manual approach of parsing the Python command-line arguments may be sufficient for a simple set of arguments. However, it becomes quickly error-prone when complexity increases due to the following:

• A large number of arguments
• Complexity and interdependency between arguments
• Validation to perform against the arguments

The custom approach isn’t reusable and requires reinventing the wheel in each program. By the end of this tutorial, you’ll have improved on this hand-crafted solution and learned a few better methods.

Type Validation With Python Data Classes

The following is a proof of concept that attempts to validate the type of the arguments passed at the command line. In the following example, you validate the number of arguments and their respective type:

# val_type_dc.py

import dataclasses
import sys
from typing import List, Any

USAGE = f"Usage: python {sys.argv[0]} [--help] | firstname lastname age]"

@dataclasses.dataclass
class Arguments:
    firstname: str
    lastname: str
    age: int = 0

def check_type(obj):
    for field in dataclasses.fields(obj):
        value = getattr(obj, field.name)
        print(
            f"Value: {value}, "
            f"Expected type {field.type} for {field.name}, "
            f"got {type(value)}"
        )
        if type(value) != field.type:
            print("Type Error")
        else:
            print("Type Ok")

def validate(args: List[str]):
    # If passed to the command line, need to convert
    # the optional 3rd argument from string to int
    if len(args) > 2 and args[2].isdigit():
        args[2] = int(args[2])
    try:
        arguments = Arguments(*args)
    except TypeError:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    check_type(arguments)

def main() -> None:
    args = sys.argv[1:]
    if not args:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)

    if args[0] == "--help":
        print(USAGE)
    else:
        validate(args)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

Unless you pass the --help option at the command line, this script expects two or three arguments:

1. A mandatory string: firstname
2. A mandatory string: lastname
3. An optional integer: age

Because all the items in sys.argv are strings, you need to convert the optional third argument to an integer if it’s composed of digits. str.isdigit() validates if all the characters in a string are digits. In addition, by constructing the data class Arguments with the values of the converted arguments, you obtain two validations:

1. If the number of arguments doesn’t correspond to the number of mandatory fields expected by Arguments, then you get an error. This is a minimum of two and a maximum of three fields.
2. If the types after conversion aren’t matching the types defined in the Arguments data class definition, then you get an error.

You can see this in action with the following execution:

$ python val_type_dc.py Guido "Van Rossum" 25
Value: Guido, Expected type <class 'str'> for firstname, got <class 'str'>
Type Ok
Value: Van Rossum, Expected type <class 'str'> for lastname, got <class 'str'>
Type Ok
Value: 25, Expected type <class 'int'> for age, got <class 'int'>
Type Ok

In the execution above, the number of arguments is correct and the type of each argument is also correct.

Now, execute the same command but omit the third argument:

$ python val_type_dc.py Guido "Van Rossum"
Value: Guido, Expected type <class 'str'> for firstname, got <class 'str'>
Type Ok
Value: Van Rossum, Expected type <class 'str'> for lastname, got <class 'str'>
Type Ok
Value: 0, Expected type <class 'int'> for age, got <class 'int'>
Type Ok

The result is also successful because the field age is defined with a default value, 0, so the data class Arguments doesn’t require it.

On the contrary, if the third argument isn’t of the proper type—say, a string instead of integer—then you get an error:

python val_type_dc.py Guido Van Rossum
Value: Guido, Expected type <class 'str'> for firstname, got <class 'str'>
Type Ok
Value: Van, Expected type <class 'str'> for lastname, got <class 'str'>
Type Ok
Value: Rossum, Expected type <class 'int'> for age, got <class 'str'>
Type Error

The expected value Van Rossum, isn’t surrounded by quotes, so it’s split. The second word of the last name, Rossum, is a string that’s handled as the age, which is expected to be an int. The validation fails.

Similarly, you could also use a NamedTuple to achieve a similar validation. You’d replace the data class with a class deriving from NamedTuple, and check_type() would change as follows:

from typing import NamedTuple

class Arguments(NamedTuple):
    firstname: str
    lastname: str
    age: int = 0

def check_type(obj):
    for attr, value in obj._asdict().items():
        print(
            f"Value: {value}, "
            f"Expected type {obj.__annotations__[attr]} for {attr}, "
            f"got {type(value)}"
        )
        if type(value) != obj.__annotations__[attr]:
            print("Type Error")
        else:
            print("Type Ok")

A NamedTuple exposes functions like _asdict that transform the object into a dictionary that can be used for data lookup. It also exposes attributes like __annotations__, which is a dictionary storing types for each field, and For more on __annotations__, check out Python Type Checking (Guide).

As highlighted in Python Type Checking (Guide), you could also leverage existing packages like Enforce, Pydantic, and Pytypes for advanced validation.

Custom Validation

Not unlike what you’ve already explored earlier, detailed validation may require some custom approaches. For example, if you attempt to execute sha1sum_stdin.py with an incorrect file name as an argument, then you get the following:

$ python sha1sum_stdin.py bad_file.txt
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "sha1sum_stdin.py", line 32, in <module>
    main(sys.argv[1:])
  File "sha1sum_stdin.py", line 29, in main
    output_sha1sum(process_file(arg), arg)
  File "sha1sum_stdin.py", line 9, in process_file
    return pathlib.Path(filename).read_bytes()
  File "/usr/lib/python3.8/pathlib.py", line 1222, in read_bytes
    with self.open(mode='rb') as f:
  File "/usr/lib/python3.8/pathlib.py", line 1215, in open
    return io.open(self, mode, buffering, encoding, errors, newline,
  File "/usr/lib/python3.8/pathlib.py", line 1071, in _opener
    return self._accessor.open(self, flags, mode)
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'bad_file.txt'

bad_file.txt doesn’t exist, but the program attempts to read it.

Revisit main() in sha1sum_stdin.py to handle non-existing files passed at the command line:

 1def main(args):
 2    if not args:
 3        output_sha1sum(process_stdin())
 4    for arg in args:
 5        if arg == "-":
 6            output_sha1sum(process_stdin(), "-")
 7            continue
 8        try:
 9            output_sha1sum(process_file(arg), arg)
10        except FileNotFoundError as err:
11            print(f"{sys.argv[0]}: {arg}: {err.strerror}", file=sys.stderr)

To see the complete example with this extra validation, expand the code block below:

# sha1sum_val.py

from typing import List
import hashlib
import pathlib
import sys

def process_file(filename: str) -> bytes:
    return pathlib.Path(filename).read_bytes()

def process_stdin() -> bytes:
    return bytes("".join(sys.stdin), "utf-8")

def sha1sum(data: bytes) -> str:
    m = hashlib.sha1()
    m.update(data)
    return m.hexdigest()

def output_sha1sum(data: bytes, filename: str = "-") -> None:
    print(f"{sha1sum(data)}  {filename}")

def main(args: List[str]) -> None:
    if not args:
        output_sha1sum(process_stdin())
    for arg in args:
        if arg == "-":
            output_sha1sum(process_stdin(), "-")
            continue
        try:
            output_sha1sum(process_file(arg), arg)
        except (FileNotFoundError, IsADirectoryError) as err:
            print(f"{sys.argv[0]}: {arg}: {err.strerror}", file=sys.stderr)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main(sys.argv[1:])

When you execute this modified script, you get this:

$ python sha1sum_val.py bad_file.txt
sha1sum_val.py: bad_file.txt: No such file or directory

Note that the error displayed to the terminal is written to stderr, so it doesn’t interfere with the data expected by a command that would read the output of sha1sum_val.py:

$ python sha1sum_val.py bad_file.txt main.py | cut -d " " -f 1
sha1sum_val.py: bad_file.txt: No such file or directory
d84372fc77a90336b6bb7c5e959bcb1b24c608b4

This command pipes the output of sha1sum_val.py to cut to only include the first field. You can see that cut ignores the error message because it only receives the data sent to stdout.

argparse

You’re going to revisit sha1sum_val.py, the most recent clone of sha1sum, to introduce the benefits of argparse. To this effect, you’ll modify main() and add init_argparse to instantiate argparse.ArgumentParser:

 1import argparse
 2
 3def init_argparse() -> argparse.ArgumentParser:
 4    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
 5        usage="%(prog)s [OPTION] [FILE]...",
 6        description="Print or check SHA1 (160-bit) checksums."
 7    )
 8    parser.add_argument(
 9        "-v", "--version", action="version",
10        version = f"{parser.prog} version 1.0.0"
11    )
12    parser.add_argument('files', nargs='*')
13    return parser
14
15def main() -> None:
16    parser = init_argparse()
17    args = parser.parse_args()
18    if not args.files:
19        output_sha1sum(process_stdin())
20    for file in args.files:
21        if file == "-":
22            output_sha1sum(process_stdin(), "-")
23            continue
24        try:
25            output_sha1sum(process_file(file), file)
26        except (FileNotFoundError, IsADirectoryError) as err:
27            print(f"{sys.argv[0]}: {file}: {err.strerror}", file=sys.stderr)

For the cost of a few more lines compared to the previous implementation, you get a clean approach to add --help and --version options that didn’t exist before. The expected arguments (the files to be processed) are all available in field files of object argparse.Namespace. This object is populated on line 17 by calling parse_args().

To look at the full script with the modifications described above, expand the code block below:

# sha1sum_argparse.py

import argparse
import hashlib
import pathlib
import sys

def process_file(filename: str) -> bytes:
    return pathlib.Path(filename).read_bytes()

def process_stdin() -> bytes:
    return bytes("".join(sys.stdin), "utf-8")

def sha1sum(data: bytes) -> str:
    sha1_hash = hashlib.sha1()
    sha1_hash.update(data)
    return sha1_hash.hexdigest()

def output_sha1sum(data: bytes, filename: str = "-") -> None:
    print(f"{sha1sum(data)}  {filename}")

def init_argparse() -> argparse.ArgumentParser:
    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
        usage="%(prog)s [OPTION] [FILE]...",
        description="Print or check SHA1 (160-bit) checksums.",
    )
    parser.add_argument(
        "-v", "--version", action="version",
        version=f"{parser.prog} version 1.0.0"
    )
    parser.add_argument("files", nargs="*")
    return parser

def main() -> None:
    parser = init_argparse()
    args = parser.parse_args()
    if not args.files:
        output_sha1sum(process_stdin())
    for file in args.files:
        if file == "-":
            output_sha1sum(process_stdin(), "-")
            continue
        try:
            output_sha1sum(process_file(file), file)
        except (FileNotFoundError, IsADirectoryError) as err:
            print(f"{parser.prog}: {file}: {err.strerror}", file=sys.stderr)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

To illustrate the immediate benefit you obtain by introducing argparse in this program, execute the following:

$ python sha1sum_argparse.py --help
usage: sha1sum_argparse.py [OPTION] [FILE]...

Print or check SHA1 (160-bit) checksums.

positional arguments:
  files

optional arguments:
  -h, --help     show this help message and exit
  -v, --version  show program's version number and exit

To delve into the details of argparse, check out Build Command-Line Interfaces With Python’s argparse.

getopt

getopt finds its origins in the getopt C function. It facilitates parsing the command line and handling options, option arguments, and arguments. Revisit parse from seq_parse.py to use getopt:

def parse():
    options, arguments = getopt.getopt(
        sys.argv[1:],                      # Arguments
        'vhs:',                            # Short option definitions
        ["version", "help", "separator="]) # Long option definitions
    separator = "n"
    for o, a in options:
        if o in ("-v", "--version"):
            print(VERSION)
            sys.exit()
        if o in ("-h", "--help"):
            print(USAGE)
            sys.exit()
        if o in ("-s", "--separator"):
            separator = a
    if not arguments or len(arguments) > 3:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    try:
        operands = [int(arg) for arg in arguments]
    except ValueError:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    return separator, operands

getopt.getopt() takes the following arguments:

1. The usual arguments list minus the script name, sys.argv[1:]
2. A string defining the short options
3. A list of strings for the long options

Note that a short option followed by a colon (:) expects an option argument, and that a long option trailed with an equals sign (=) expects an option argument.

The remaining code of seq_getopt.py is the same as seq_parse.py and is available in the collapsed code block below:

# seq_getopt.py

from typing import List, Tuple
import getopt
import sys

USAGE = f"Usage: python {sys.argv[0]} [--help] | [-s <sep>] [first [incr]] last"
VERSION = f"{sys.argv[0]} version 1.0.0"

def seq(operands: List[int], sep: str = "n") -> str:
    first, increment, last = 1, 1, 1
    if len(operands) == 1:
        last = operands[0]
    elif len(operands) == 2:
        first, last = operands
        if first > last:
            increment = -1
    elif len(operands) == 3:
        first, increment, last = operands
    last = last - 1 if first > last else last + 1
    return sep.join(str(i) for i in range(first, last, increment))

def parse(args: List[str]) -> Tuple[str, List[int]]:
    options, arguments = getopt.getopt(
        args,                              # Arguments
        'vhs:',                            # Short option definitions
        ["version", "help", "separator="]) # Long option definitions
    separator = "n"
    for o, a in options:
        if o in ("-v", "--version"):
            print(VERSION)
            sys.exit()
        if o in ("-h", "--help"):
            print(USAGE)
            sys.exit()
        if o in ("-s", "--separator"):
            separator = a
    if not arguments or len(arguments) > 3:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    try:
        operands = [int(arg) for arg in arguments]
    except:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    return separator, operands

def main() -> None:
    args = sys.argv[1:]
    if not args:
        raise SystemExit(USAGE)
    sep, operands = parse(args)
    print(seq(operands, sep))

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

Next, you’ll take a look at some external packages that will help you parse Python command-line arguments.

Click

As of this writing, Click is perhaps the most advanced library to build a sophisticated command-line interface for a Python program. It’s used by several Python products, most notably Flask and Black. Before you try the following example, you need to install Click in either a Python virtual environment or your local environment. If you’re not familiar with the concept of virtual environments, then check out Python Virtual Environments: A Primer.

To install Click, proceed as follows:

$ python -m pip install click

So, how could Click help you handle the Python command-line arguments? Here’s a variation of the seq program using Click:

# seq_click.py

import click

@click.command(context_settings=dict(ignore_unknown_options=True))
@click.option("--separator", "-s",
              default="n",
              help="Text used to separate numbers (default: \n)")
@click.version_option(version="1.0.0")
@click.argument("operands", type=click.INT, nargs=-1)
def seq(operands, separator) -> str:
    first, increment, last = 1, 1, 1
    if len(operands) == 1:
        last = operands[0]
    elif len(operands) == 2:
        first, last = operands
        if first > last:
            increment = -1
    elif len(operands) == 3:
        first, increment, last = operands
    else:
        raise click.BadParameter("Invalid number of arguments")
    last = last - 1 if first > last else last + 1
    print(separator.join(str(i) for i in range(first, last, increment)))

if __name__ == "__main__":
    seq()

Setting ignore_unknown_options to True ensures that Click doesn’t parse negative arguments as options. Negative integers are valid seq arguments.

As you may have observed, you get a lot for free! A few well-carved decorators are sufficient to bury the boilerplate code, allowing you to focus on the main code, which is the content of seq() in this example.

The only import remaining is click. The declarative approach of decorating the main command, seq(), eliminates repetitive code that’s otherwise necessary. This could be any of the following:

• Defining a help or usage procedure
• Handling the version of the program
• Capturing and setting up default values for options
• Validating arguments, including the type

The new seq implementation barely scratches the surface. Click offers many niceties that will help you craft a very professional command-line interface:

• Output coloring
• Prompt for omitted arguments
• Commands and sub-commands
• Argument type validation
• Callback on options and arguments
• File path validation
• Progress bar

There are many other features as well. Check out Writing Python Command-Line Tools With Click to see more concrete examples based on Click.

Python Prompt Toolkit

There are other popular Python packages that are handling the command-line interface problem, like docopt for Python. So, you may find the choice of the Prompt Toolkit a bit counterintuitive.

The Python Prompt Toolkit provides features that may make your command line application drift away from the Unix philosophy. However, it helps to bridge the gap between an arcane command-line interface and a full-fledged graphical user interface. In other words, it may help to make your tools and programs more user-friendly.

You can use this tool in addition to processing Python command-line arguments as in the previous examples, but this gives you a path to a UI-like approach without you having to depend on a full Python UI toolkit. To use prompt_toolkit, you need to install it with pip:

$ python -m pip install prompt_toolkit

You may find the next example a bit contrived, but the intent is to spur ideas and move you slightly away from more rigorous aspects of the command line with respect to the conventions you’ve seen in this tutorial.

As you’ve already seen the core logic of this example, the code snippet below only presents the code that significantly deviates from the previous examples:

def error_dlg():
    message_dialog(
        title="Error",
        text="Ensure that you enter a number",
    ).run()

def seq_dlg():
    labels = ["FIRST", "INCREMENT", "LAST"]
    operands = []
    while True:
        n = input_dialog(
            title="Sequence",
            text=f"Enter argument {labels[len(operands)]}:",
        ).run()
        if n is None:
            break
        if n.isdigit():
            operands.append(int(n))
        else:
            error_dlg()
        if len(operands) == 3:
            break

    if operands:
        seq(operands)
    else:
        print("Bye")        

actions = {"SEQUENCE": seq_dlg, "HELP": help, "VERSION": version}

def main():
    result = button_dialog(
        title="Sequence",
        text="Select an action:",
        buttons=[
            ("Sequence", "SEQUENCE"),
            ("Help", "HELP"),
            ("Version", "VERSION"),
        ],
    ).run()
    actions.get(result, lambda: print("Unexpected action"))()

The code above involves ways to interact and possibly guide users to enter the expected input, and to validate the input interactively using three dialog boxes:

1. button_dialog
2. message_dialog
3. input_dialog

The Python Prompt Toolkit exposes many other features intended to improve interaction with users. The call to the handler in main() is triggered by calling a function stored in a dictionary. Check out Emulating switch/case Statements in Python if you’ve never encountered this Python idiom before.

You can see the full example of the program using prompt_toolkit by expanding the code block below:

# seq_prompt.py

import sys
from typing import List
from prompt_toolkit.shortcuts import button_dialog, input_dialog, message_dialog

def version():
    print("Version 1.0.0")

def help():
    print("Print numbers from FIRST to LAST, in steps of INCREMENT.")

def seq(operands: List[int], sep: str = "n"):
    first, increment, last = 1, 1, 1
    if len(operands) == 1:
        last = operands[0]
    elif len(operands) == 2:
        first, last = operands
        if first > last:
            increment = -1
    elif len(operands) == 3:
        first, increment, last = operands
    last = last - 1 if first > last else last + 1
    print(sep.join(str(i) for i in range(first, last, increment)))

def error_dlg():
    message_dialog(
        title="Error",
        text="Ensure that you enter a number",
    ).run()

def seq_dlg():
    labels = ["FIRST", "INCREMENT", "LAST"]
    operands = []
    while True:
        n = input_dialog(
            title="Sequence",
            text=f"Enter argument {labels[len(operands)]}:",
        ).run()
        if n is None:
            break
        if n.isdigit():
            operands.append(int(n))
        else:
            error_dlg()
        if len(operands) == 3:
            break

    if operands:
        seq(operands)
    else:
        print("Bye")        

actions = {"SEQUENCE": seq_dlg, "HELP": help, "VERSION": version}

def main():
    result = button_dialog(
        title="Sequence",
        text="Select an action:",
        buttons=[
            ("Sequence", "SEQUENCE"),
            ("Help", "HELP"),
            ("Version", "VERSION"),
        ],
    ).run()
    actions.get(result, lambda: print("Unexpected action"))()

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()